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10 Year Term Limits for the House of Representatives

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In the United States, term limits, likewise referred to equally rotation in office, restrict the number of terms of part an officeholder may serve. At the federal level, the 22nd Amendment to the United States Constitution limits the president of the United States to ii 4-year terms. State regime offices in some, but not all states, are term-limited, including for executive, legislative, and judicial part.

Historical groundwork [edit]

The Constitution [edit]

Term limits tin date back to the American Revolution, and prior to that to the democracies and republics of artifact. The quango of 500 in ancient Athens rotated its entire membership annually, as did the ephorate in ancient Sparta. The ancient Roman Republic featured a organisation of elected magistrates—tribunes of the plebs, aediles, quaestors, praetors, and consuls —who served a single term of one year, with re-election to the same magistracy forbidden for ten years (see cursus honorum). According to historian Garrett Fagan, office holding in the Roman Republic was based on "limited tenure of office" which ensured that "authority circulated ofttimes", helping to prevent corruption. An additional benefit of the cursus honorum or Run of Offices was to bring the "almost experienced" politicians to the upper echelons of power-holding in the aboriginal democracy.[ane] Many of the founders of the United states of america were educated in the classics, and quite familiar with rotation in the function during antiquity. The debates of that day reveal a desire to study and profit from the object lessons offered past aboriginal commonwealth.[ commendation needed ]

Prior to independence, several colonies had already experimented with term limits. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut of 1639, for example, prohibited the colonial governor from serving consecutive terms past setting terms at one year's length and holding "that no person be chosen Governor above once in two years."[2] Presently later on independence, the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 set maximum service in the Pennsylvania General Assembly at "four years in seven".[iii] Benjamin Franklin'due south influence is seen not merely in that he chaired the constitutional convention which drafted the Pennsylvania constitution, merely also because information technology included, almost unchanged, Franklin'due south earlier proposals on executive rotation. Pennsylvania's plural executive was equanimous of twelve citizens elected for the term of three years, followed by a mandatory vacation of 4 years.[four]

The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, established term limits for the delegates to the Continental Congress, mandating in Article V that "no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in whatever term of six years."[5]

On October 2, 1789, the Continental Congress appointed a committee of thirteen to examine forms of government for the impending union of united states of america. Among the proposals was that from the State of Virginia, written past Thomas Jefferson, urging a limitation of tenure, "to prevent every danger which might arise to American freedom by continuing too long in role the members of the Continental Congress".[vi] The commission made recommendations, which as regards congressional term limits were incorporated unchanged into the Articles of Confederation (1781–89). The 5th Commodity stated that "no person shall be capable of being a consul [to the continental congress] for more iii years in whatever term of six years".[a]

Term limits in the Constitution [edit]

In contrast to the Articles of Confederation, the federal constitution convention at Philadelphia omitted mandatory term limits from the U.Southward. Constitution of 1789. At the convention, some delegates spoke passionately against term limits such equally Rufus King, who said "that he who has proved himself to be almost fit for an Office, ought not to be excluded by the constitution from property information technology."[7] The Electoral Higher, it was believed past some[ who? ] delegates at the convention, could accept a role to play in limiting unfit officers from continuing.

When the states ratified the Constitution (1787–88), several leading statesmen regarded the lack of mandatory limits to tenure as a dangerous defect, especially, they thought, equally regards the presidency and the Senate. Richard Henry Lee viewed the absence of legal limits to tenure, together with certain other features of the Constitution, as "nigh highly and dangerously oligarchic".[eight] Both Jefferson[nine] and George Stonemason[10] advised limits on reelection to the Senate and to the Presidency, because said Mason, "null is then essential to the preservation of a Republican authorities as a periodic rotation". The historian Mercy Otis Warren, warned that "there is no provision for a rotation, nor anything to prevent the perpetuity of office in the same hands for life; which past a trivial well-timed bribery, will probably exist done".[11]

Later on 1789 [edit]

Korzi (2013) says George Washington did not set the informal precedent for a two-term limit for the Presidency. He but meant he was also worn out to personally continue in office.[12] It was Thomas Jefferson who made it a principle in 1808. He fabricated many statements calling for term limits in i form or another.[b]

The tradition was challenged by Ulysses Grant in 1880,[xiii] and by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912.[fourteen] Otherwise no major effort to avert it took place until 1940 when Franklin Roosevelt explicitly broke it.[15] The 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1951 formally establishing in law the two-term limit—although it did non apply to the incumbent Harry Truman.

The fact that "perpetuity in office" was not approached until the 20th century is due in function to the influence of rotation in office as a popular 19th-century concept. "Ideas are, in truth, forces", and rotation in office enjoyed such normative support, especially at the local level, that it altered political reality.[16] [c]

During the Civil State of war, the Constitution of the Confederate States limited its president to a single six-year term.

Era of incumbency [edit]

The practice of nomination rotation for the House of Representatives began to decline after the Ceremonious War. Information technology took a generation or so earlier the direct chief system, civil service reforms, and the ethic of professionalism worked to eliminate rotation in role as a common political practice. By the turn of the 20th century the era of incumbency was coming into full swing.[ commendation needed ]

A full of 8 presidents served two total terms and declined a 3rd and three presidents served i full term and refused a second. After Earth War II, withal, an officeholder form had developed to the bespeak that congressional tenure rivaled that of the U.S. Supreme Court, where tenure is for life.[ commendation needed ]

Term limits movement [edit]

A movement in favor of term limits took hold in the early on 1990s, and reached its apex in 1992-94, a menstruation when 17 states enacted term limits through state legislation or country constitutional amendments.[17]

Many of the laws enacted express terms for both the state legislature and in the state's delegation to Congress; equally they pertain to Congress, these laws were struck down every bit unconstitutional by U.S. Supreme Court in U.Southward. Term Limits, Inc. five. Thornton (1995), in which the court ruled, on a v–iv vote, that state governments cannot limit the terms of members of the national authorities.[17] [18]

Where rotation in the legislative branch has withstood court challenges, term limits continue to garner popular support. As of 2002, the advancement grouping "U.S. Term Limits" found that in the 17 states where state legislators served in rotation, public support for term limits ranged from 60 to 78 per centum.[19]

Federal term limits [edit]

Office Term limits
President Limited to existence elected to a total of two four-yr terms. A President by succession who completes more than two years of a quondam President'due south unfinished term may be elected in their ain right merely once, and two more four-year terms are permitted if they complete two years or less. Becoming a President past succession may happen to someone an unlimited number of times, for example, if they are Vice President and the President dies, resigns or is removed from role via impeachment conviction.[20]
Vice President Unlimited four-year terms
House of Representatives Unlimited two-year terms
Senate Unlimited six-twelvemonth terms
Supreme Court No term limits, appointed to serve "during good behavior"[21] (simply tin be impeached and removed from office for "high Crimes and Misdemeanors"); in practise a Justice serves until death, resignation, or retirement.

As of 2013, term limits at the federal level are restricted to the executive branch and some agencies. Judicial appointments at the federal level are made for life, and are non bailiwick to election or to term limits. The U.S. Congress remains (since the Thornton decision of 1995) without electoral limits.

President [edit]

"Four more years" redirects here. For the documentary, run into 4 More Years.

George Washington's conclusion in 1796 not to run for a third term has often been given credit every bit the beginning of a tradition that no president should ever run for a third term.[22] Washington wanted to retire when his offset term ended in 1792 but all his advisors begged him to stand up for reelection. Past 1796 he insisted on retiring, for he felt exhausted, and was disgusted with the virulent personal attacks on his integrity. His Farewell Address very briefly mentioned why he would non run for a tertiary term, and goes on to give a great deal of political advice, but it does not mention term limits. Later his death, his refusal to run was explained in terms of a "no-third-tradition". Crockett (2008) argues, "The statement for term limits has a solid and respectable full-blooded. Contrary to popular belief, however, that pedigree does not begin with George Washington."[23] The Second President, John Adams, lost re-election in 1800 to Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson himself declined re-election to a third term, attributing the precedent to Washington.[24]

In the 1780s, about half the states provided term limits for governors.[25] The Constitutional convention of 1787 discussed the upshot and decided non to institute presidential term limits. "The matter was adequately discussed in the Convention," Washington wrote in 1788, "and to my total convictions ... I tin can see no propriety in precluding ourselves from the services of any man, who on some great emergency shall be deemed universally, near capable of serving the Public", even after serving ii terms. The Constitution, Washington explained, retained sufficient checks against political corruption and stagnant leadership without a presidential term limits provision.[26] Jefferson, however, strongly endorsed a policy of term limits. He rejected calls from supporters that he run for a third term in 1808, telling several state legislatures in 1807-1808 that he needed to support "the audio precedent set past [his] illustrious predecessor."[24]

A political cartoon showing Washington rejecting Theodore Roosevelt's highly controversial run for a 3rd term in 1912

In 1861, the Confederate States of America adopted a 6-year term for their president and vice-president and barred the president from seeking re-ballot. That innovation was endorsed past many American politicians afterward the Civil State of war, near notably past Rutherford B. Hayes in his inaugural address. Ulysses Grant was urged to run for a tertiary term in 1876, but he refused. He did try to win the 1880 nomination, but was defeated in role because of popular anti-third-term sentiment.[27] Theodore Roosevelt had already served over vii years and in 1912, subsequently a four-twelvemonth hiatus, ran for a third term. He was violently criticized and was almost killed by John Flammang Schrank for doing and so.[28] The 1912 ballot was ultimately won by Woodrow Wilson.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (president, 1933–1945) was the merely president to be elected more than twice, having won a third term in 1940 and a fourth term in 1944 (though he died in office iii months into his fourth term). This gave rise to a successful motion to formalize the traditional two-term limit by amending the U.S. Constitution. Every bit ratified in 1951, the Twenty-2d Amendment provides that "no person shall be elected to the part of President more than twice". The new Amendment explicitly did not use to the incumbent president, Harry S. Truman. However, Truman declined to seek re-election to a third term in 1952.[29]

Congress [edit]

Alphabetic character from Senator Orrin Hatch, first elected in 1976, expressing reservations regarding term limits (dated Feb 10, 2011)

Reformers during the early 1990s used the initiative and referendum to put congressional term limits on the election in 24 states. Voters in eight of these states canonical the congressional term limits by an average electoral margin of two to one.[30] It was an open up question whether states had the constitutional authority to enact these limits. In May 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 514 U.South. 779 (1995), that states cannot impose term limits upon their federal Representatives or Senators.

In the 1994 elections, part of the Republican platform included legislation for term limits in Congress. After winning the majority, a Republican congressman brought a ramble subpoena to the Business firm floor that proposed limiting members of the Senate to two six-twelvemonth terms and members of the Business firm to half dozen two-yr terms.[31] However, this rate of rotation was so slow (the life-tenured Supreme Courtroom averages nearly 16 years) that the congressional version of term-limits garnered little support among the populist backers of term limits, including U.S. Term Limits, the largest individual arrangement pushing for congressional term limits.[d] The pecker got merely a blank bulk (227–204), falling short of the 2-thirds majority (290) needed for constitutional amendments.[32] 3 other term limit amendment bills failed to become more 200 votes.[e]

Defeated in Congress and overridden by the Supreme Court, the federal term limit movement was brought to a halt. The term limits intended simultaneously to reform state legislatures (as distinguished from the federal congressional delegations) remain in force, however, in fifteen states.[33] [34]

In 2007 Larry J. Sabato revived the contend over term limits by arguing in A More Perfect Constitution that the success and popularity of term limits at the country level suggests that they should be adopted at the federal level too. He specifically put forth the thought of congressional term limits and suggested a national constitutional convention be used to accomplish the subpoena, since the Congress would exist unlikely to advise and prefer any amendment that limits its own power.

Some state legislators have too expressed their opinions on term limits. It is confirmed that in the following five states—and at that place may be others—land lawmakers approved resolutions asking Congress to suggest a federal constitutional amendment to limit the number of terms which members of Congress may serve:

  1. South Dakota Legislature (designated as POM-42 in the U.S. Senate) approved in 1989, South Dakota Firm Articulation Resolution No. 1001 (come across Congressional Record of April iv, 1989, at pages 5395 and 5396, with verbatim text provided);
  2. Hawaii Senate (designated every bit Memorial 400 in the U.S. House of Representatives) approved in 1990, Hawaii Senate Resolution No. 41—unicameral but (see Congressional Record of September 28, 1998, at folio 22655) it took 8 years for this resolution to find its manner into the Congressional Record and to be correctly referred to the Commission on the Judiciary—and even so, its text was not provided in the Congressional Tape); dorsum in 1990, Hawaii'southward Due south.R. No. 41 was indeed received by the U.S. House of Representatives, and was designated as Memorial 416, (Congressional Record of June vi, 1990, at pages 13,262 and 13,263) simply the resolution was erroneously referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce—and its text is NOT provided in the Congressional Tape;
  3. Utah Legislature (designated as POM-644 in the U.S. Senate) approved in 1990, Utah Senate Joint Resolution No. 24 (encounter Congressional Record of September 27, 1994, at page 26033, with verbatim text provided) it took 4 years for this resolution to discover its way into the U.S. Senate's portion of the Congressional Tape;
  4. Idaho Legislature (designated as Memorial 401 in the U.S. Firm of Representatives) approved in 1992, Idaho Senate Joint Memorial No. 116 (come across Congressional Record of April 29, 1992, at page 9804—text NOT provided in the Congressional Record); and
  5. Florida Legislature (designated equally POM-122 in the U.Due south. Senate) canonical in 2012, Florida House Memorial No. 83 (see Congressional Tape of July 25, 2012, at page S5378, with verbatim text provided). Taking matters a bit further, on February 10, 2016, Florida lawmakers approved House Memorial No. 417 calling upon Congress, pursuant to Article V of the Federal Constitution, to assemble a Convention to prepare a ramble amendment that would plant term limits upon members of Congress.

Supreme Court [edit]

Legal scholars have discussed whether or not to impose term limits on the Supreme Court of the Us. Currently, Supreme Court Justices are appointed for life "during adept behavior". A sentiment has developed, amid sure scholars, that the Supreme Court may not exist accountable in a way that is virtually in line with the spirit of checks and balances.[35] Equally, scholars have argued that life tenure has taken on a new meaning in a modern context.[36] Changes in medical intendance have markedly raised life expectancy and therefore have immune Justices to serve for longer than ever before.[35] [36] Steven G. Calebresi and James Lindgren, professors of law at Northwestern University, argued that because vacancies in the court are occurring with less frequency and justices served on average 26.1 years between 1971 and 2006, the "efficacy of the democratic check that the appointment process provides on the Court'southward membership" is reduced.[35] There accept been several similar proposals to implement term limits for the nation'southward highest court, including Professor of Police force at Duke University Paul Carrington's "Supreme Court Renewal Deed of 2005".[37]

Many of the proposals center around a term limit for Justices that would be 18 years to 25 years in length. (Larry Sabato, Professor of Political Science at University of Virginia, suggested between xv and 18 years).[35] [36] [37] [38] The staggered term limits of 18 years proposed by Calebresi & Lindgren (2006) and Carrington & Cramton (2005) harvtxt mistake: no target: CITEREFCarringtonCramton2005 (help) would allow for a new appointment to the Court every two years, which in effect would permit every president at least 2 appointments.[36] Carrington has argued that such a measure out would non require a constitutional amendment every bit the "Constitution doesn't even mention life tenure; it merely requires that justices serve during 'skilful behaviour' ".[36] The idea was endorsed amidst Judges, equally John Roberts supported term limits before he was appointed to the Supreme Court every bit Chief Justice. Calebresi, Lingren, and Carrington have also proposed that when justices take served out their proposed 18-twelvemonth term they should exist able to sit on other Federal Courts until retirement, decease, or removal.[35] [36]

Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind Poll measured American voters' attitudes towards diverse proposed Supreme Court reforms, including implementing term limits. The 2010 poll plant that a bulk of Americans were largely unaware of a proposal to impose a term limit of xviii years, every bit 82% reported they had heard niggling or nothing at all.[39] Notwithstanding a lack of awareness, 52% of Americans approved of limiting terms to 18 years, while 35% disapproved.[39] When asked how onetime is too old for a Supreme Courtroom judge to serve if he seems salubrious, 48% said "no limit every bit long as he is healthy", while 31% agreed that anyone over the age of 70 is too old.[39]

Some country lawmakers have officially expressed to Congress a want for a federal ramble amendment to limit terms of Supreme Court justices as well as of judges of federal courts below the Supreme Court level. While there might be others, beneath are three known examples:

  1. In 1957, the Alabama Legislature adopted Senate Joint Resolution No. 47 on the bailiwick (appearing in the U.S. Senate'due south portion of the Congressional Record on July three, 1957, at folio 10863, with full text provided);
  2. In 1978, the Tennessee General Associates adopted House Articulation Resolution No. 21 on the subject (designated as POM-612 past the U.S. Senate and quoted in full in the Congressional Record of April 25, 1978, at page 11437); and
  3. In 1998, the Louisiana Firm of Representatives adopted Firm Resolution No. 120 on the subject (designated as POM-511 past the U.S. Senate and quoted in full in the Congressional Record of July 17, 1998, at page 16076).

State term limits [edit]

Term limits for state officials have existed since colonial times. The Pennsylvania Lease of Liberties of 1682, and the colonial frame of government of the aforementioned year, both authored by William Penn, provided for triennial rotation of the provincial council—the upper house of the colonial legislature.[40] The Delaware Constitution of 1776 limited the governor to a unmarried three-year term; currently, the governor of Delaware can serve two four-year terms.

Gubernatorial term limits [edit]

U.Due south. gubernatorial term limits as of 2014

Governors of 36 states[41] and four territories are subject to various term limits, while the governors of 14 states, Puerto Rico, and the Mayor of Washington, D.C., may serve an unlimited number of terms. Each state's gubernatorial term limits are prescribed past its country constitution, with the exception of Wyoming, whose limits are plant in its statutes. Territorial term limits are prescribed by its constitution in the Northern Mariana Islands, the Organic Acts in Guam and the U.South. Virgin Islands, and by statute in American Samoa.

Uniquely, Virginia prohibits its governors from serving sequent terms, although quondam governors are eligible to serve once again equally governor later a specified period (currently, four years) out of function. Several other states formerly had this "no succession" rule (which was function of Virginia'due south original constitution in 1776), but all have eliminated the prohibition except Virginia past 2000 (including Mississippi, which repealed it in 1986, and Kentucky, which repealed it in 1992).[42]

The governors of the following states and territories are limited to two consecutive terms, merely are eligible to run again later on four years out of role: Alabama,[43] Alaska,[44] Arizona,[45] Colorado,[46] Florida,[47] Georgia,[48] Hawaii,[49] Kansas,[50] Kentucky,[51] Louisiana,[52] Maine,[53] Maryland,[54] Nebraska,[55] New Bailiwick of jersey,[56] New Mexico,[57] North Carolina,[58] Ohio,[59] Pennsylvania,[lx] Rhode Island,[61] South Carolina,[62] Due south Dakota,[63] Tennessee,[64] West Virginia,[65] American Samoa,[66] Guam,[67] and the U.S. Virgin Islands.[68]

Equivalently, the Governors of Indiana[69] and Oregon[70] are limited to serving eight out of any 12 years. Conversely, the Governors of Montana[71] and Wyoming[72] are express to two terms, serving viii out of any 16 years.

Finally, the governors of the following states and territory are limited to 2 terms for life during a person's lifetime menses: Arkansas,[73] California,[74] Delaware,[75] Michigan,[76] Mississippi,[77] Missouri,[78] Nevada,[79] the Northern Mariana Islands,[80] and Oklahoma.[81] Sometime Governor of California Jerry Brown, yet, served four non-sequent terms because his first 2 terms were before limits were passed in California, and the limits did not apply to individuals' prior terms.

The governors of New Hampshire and Vermont may serve unlimited two-twelvemonth terms. The governors (or equivalent) in the following states, district, and territory may serve unlimited four-year terms: Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, North Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, Commune of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The Governor of Utah was previously limited to serving three terms, but all term limit laws have since been repealed by the legislature.

State legislatures with term limits [edit]

Fifteen land legislatures currently have term limits.[82] The earliest state legislative term limit was enacted in 1990, and the most recent was enacted in 2000; term limits but went into issue years after they were enacted.[82]

  • Arizona Legislature: 4 consecutive two-year terms for both houses (eight years). No limit on total number of terms.
  • Arkansas General Assembly: 12 sequent years with the option to return afterwards a four year break. The lifetime limit of sixteen years total in either the Business firm or the Senate was repealed past referendum in 2020. (Prior to the 2022 ballot, the previous limits of three two-year terms for House members (six years) and two four-yr terms for Senate members (eight years) applied).
  • California State Legislature: twelve years total in either Associates or Senate. (For legislators first elected on or before June 5, 2012, the previous limits (enacted in 1990) of three two-year terms for Assembly members (six years) and ii four-year terms for Senate members (eight years) utilise).
  • Colorado General Assembly: four sequent two-yr terms in the House (eight years) and ii consecutive 4-year terms in the Senate (viii years). Former members can run again later a four twelvemonth interruption.
  • Florida Legislature: may serve no more than viii sequent years in either firm. No limit on full number of terms.
  • Illinois Senate: Senate Presidents and Minority Leaders may non serve for more than 10 years.[83]
  • Louisiana State Legislature: 3 consecutive four-year terms for both houses (twelve years). Members may run for the opposite trunk without having to sit out an election.
  • Maine Legislature: iv two-year terms for both houses (eight years). No limit on total number of terms
  • Michigan Legislature: three ii-year terms for Business firm members (six years) and two four-year terms for Senate members (8 years).
  • Missouri General Assembly: four two-year terms for House members (eight years) and ii four-year terms for Senate members (eight years). Members may be elected again to the other business firm, simply not serve more than than 16 years.
  • Montana Country Legislature: four two-twelvemonth terms for Business firm members (eight years) in any sixteen-year period and ii iv-year terms for Senate members (eight years) in any sixteen-twelvemonth period.
  • Nebraska Legislature: unicameral legislature; members limited to two consecutive iv-year terms (eight years), later which they must wait iv years earlier running once more.[84]
  • Nevada Legislature: six two-year terms for Assembly members (twelve years) and three four-year terms for Senate members (twelve years).
  • Ohio General Associates: four consecutive two-year terms for Firm members (eight years) and two consecutive iv-year terms for Senate members (eight years).
  • Oklahoma Legislature: Twelve years of total combined service in either the House or the Senate. If a legislator'due south first term is the issue of a special election, that service does not count toward the limit.[85]
  • South Dakota Legislature: four consecutive two-year terms for both houses (viii years).

Overturned or repealed land legislative term limits [edit]

Legislative term limits have been repealed or overturned in six states. Term limits for land legislatures were adopted by Idaho and Utah in 1994, simply repealed by their respective legislatures in 2002 (Idaho) and 2003 (Utah).[82] Term limits adopted in four states were struck down equally unconstitutional by the state supreme courts in those states: in Massachusetts, Washington and Wyoming, the courtroom ruled that term limits could not be enacted by statute, and could only exist enacted past an amendment to the state constitution; the Oregon Supreme Courtroom ruled that the Oregon initiative establishing term limits violated the single-subject dominion.[82]

Municipal term limits [edit]

Some localities impose term limits for local office. Among the xx nearly populous U.Southward. cities:

  • In that location are no term limits in Baltimore, Maryland; Charlotte, North Carolina; Chicago, Illinois; Columbus, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Fort Worth, Texas and Indianapolis, Indiana.[86]
  • Term limits of equal length are applied to both mayors and city quango members in Austin, Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio in Texas; Jacksonville, Florida; Memphis, Tennessee; New York City; and San Diego, San Francisco, and San Jose in California.[86]
  • Philadelphia, Pennsylvania has term limits for the mayor, but not the city council.[86] The mayor may serve ii consecutive terms but there is no limit on the total number of terms.
  • Los Angeles, California and Phoenix, Arizona have term limits for both the mayor and city council, just the term limits for the mayor are stricter than the term limits for the council.[86]

A two-term limit was imposed on New York City Council members and citywide elected officials (except for district attorneys) in New York City after a 1993 referendum (come across the Lease of the Urban center of New York, § 1138). On November 3, 2008, however, when Michael Bloomberg was in his second term of mayor, the City Council approved the extension of the two-term limit to a 3-term limit; ane twelvemonth afterward, he was elected to a third term. The two-term limit was reinstated afterwards a referendum in 2010.[87] [88]

Impact [edit]

Research shows that legislative term limits increase legislative polarization,[89] reduce the legislative skills of politicians,[90] [91] [92] reduce the legislative productivity of politicians,[93] weaken legislatures vis-à-vis the executive,[94] and reduce voter turnout.[95] Parties answer to the implementation of term limits past recruiting candidates for function on more partisan lines.[96] States that implement term limits in the land legislatures are associated with too developing more powerful House speakers.[97]

Term limits have not reduced campaign spending,[98] reduced the gender gap in political representation,[99] increased the diversity of police-makers,[100] or increased the constituent service activities of law-makers.[101] Term limits have been linked to lower growth in revenues and expenditures.[102]

See too [edit]

  • Widow's succession
  • Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
  • Listing of political term limits
  • Political class
  • Second Constitutional Convention of the United States

References [edit]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Article IX, paragraph 5, of the Manufactures of Confederation provided that, "no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than than one yr in whatsoever term of four years."
  2. ^ Run into Family unit Guardian, "Thomas Jefferson on Politics & Regime".
  3. ^ For a detailed study of the 19th-century concepts of rotation, consult Struble Jr (1979–1980, p. 650). See likewise Struble Jr (2010); Young (1966).
  4. ^ U.Due south. Term Limits wanted Firm members to be limited to three two-twelvemonth terms.[ citation needed ]
  5. ^ The four constitutional amendments on term limits which the Firm rejected 29 March 1995 were sponsored by: Democrat John Dingell [12/12 retroactive], rejected 135–297; Republican Bob Inglis [six/12, not retroactive], rejected 114–316; Republican Van Hilleary [12/12, unretroactive, merely defers to more than stringent state imposed limits], rejected 164–265; Republican Beak McCollum [12/12 not retroactive and would override more stringent state limits]; approved by less than the requisite 2/three, 227–204; on February 12, 1997 Congress did also by a margin of 217–211 [50.7%].

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ Fagan, Garrett G. (2003) [1999]. The History of Ancient Rome (DVD). The Great Courses. The Instruction Company. ...Part-holding at Rome was based on two important concepts: collegiality and limited tenure of part...
  2. ^ "Fundamental Orders of Connecticut". avalon.law.yale.edu. Yale Police force School Lillian Goldman Constabulary Library. Retrieved one May 2015.
  3. ^ "Constitution of Pennsylvania - September 28, 1776; section 8". avalon.law.yale.edu. Yale Constabulary School Lillian Goldman Law Library. xviii December 1998.
  4. ^ "Constitution of Pennsylvania - September 28, 1776; section 19". avalon.constabulary.yale.edu. Yale Police School Lillian Goldman Law Library. 18 December 1998. On Franklin's program of 1775, see Smyth, Albert Henry, ed. (1907). The Writings of Benjamin Franklin. Vol. 6. New York: Macmillan. page 423, article 9.
  5. ^ "Articles of Confederation: March 1, 1781". The Avalon Project. Yale Police Schoolhouse Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
  6. ^ Boyd 1950, vol. 1, p. 411
  7. ^ Crane, Edward H.; Pilon, Roger, eds. (1994). The Politics and Law of Term Limits. Washington, DC: Cato Found. p. 62. ISBN9781882577132.
  8. ^ Ballagh (1911, Letter to Edmund Randolph dated sixteen October 1787: vol 2, pp. 450-455). Encounter also Ballagh (1911, Letter to Edmund Pendleton dated 12 May 1776: vol. 1, p.191); Bennett, Walter H., ed. (1978). Messages from the Federal Farmer to the Republican. University of Alabama Press. pp. 72–75, 86.
  9. ^ Boyd 1950, vol. 12 p. 440; vol. 13 p. 490. See also Boyd 1950, vol. 15 p. 25 for Jefferson'due south definition of rotation in part.
  10. ^ Eliot, Jonathan, ed. (1836). The Debates in the Several State Conventions on Adoption of the Federal Constitution. Vol. three. Washington, DC: Government Press Office. p. 485.
  11. ^ Otis Warren, Mercy (1981). "Observations on the new Constitution, and on the Federal and State Conventions 9". In Staring, Herbert J. (ed.). The Complete Anti-Federalist. Vol. four. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 270–278.
  12. ^ Korzi 2013, pp. 43–44.
  13. ^ Stein 1943, pp. 71–116.
  14. ^ Stein 1943, pp. 144–222.
  15. ^ Stein 1943, pp. 317–340.
  16. ^ (Struble Jr 1979–1980, p.650, footnote 6). The quotation is from Henry James, the biographer.
  17. ^ a b John M. Carey, Richard Thousand. Niemi & Lynda Due west. Powell, Term Limits in State Legislatures (Academy of Michigan Press: 2009), pp. 1-ii.
  18. ^ U.South. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 514 U.South. 779 (1995).
  19. ^ Rumenap, Stacie (August 2002). "Career Politicians Never Did Like Term Limits". No Uncertain Terms. Vol. 10, no. 7. pp. 2–iii.
  20. ^ Dorf, Michael C. (ii August 2000). "Why the Constitution permits a Gore-Clinton ticket". CNN Interactive.
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Bibliography [edit]

  • Bailey, Harry A. (1972). "Presidential Tenure and the Ii-Term Tradition". Publius. 2 (ii): 95–106. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a038259. JSTOR 3329550.
  • Ballagh, James C., ed. (1911). The Messages of Richard Henry Lee. Vol. Ii volumes. New York: Macmillan.
  • Boyd, Julian F., ed. (1950). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Crockett, David A. (2008). "An Excess of Refinement: Lame Duck Presidents in Constitutional and Historical Context". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 38 (iv): 707–721. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2008.02673.10.
  • Korzi, Michael J. (2009). "Changing Views of Executive Tenure in Early on American History". White House Studies. eight (3): 357–379.
  • Korzi, Michael J. (2013). Presidential Term Limits in American History: Power, Principles, and Politics. Texas A&M University Publishing. ISBN9781603449915.
  • Stein, Charles W. (1943). The Third-Term Tradition: Its Ascent and Plummet in American Politics. New York: Columbia Academy Printing.
  • Struble Jr, Robert (Winter 1979–1980). "House Turnover and the Principle of Rotation" (PDF). Political Science Quarterly. 94. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-ten-11.
  • Struble Jr, Robert (2010). "Rotation in Part, and other autonomous reforms". Treatise on Twelve Lights. Archived from the original on 2016-04-11.
  • Young, James Southward. (1966). The Washington Community, 1800–1828 . New York: Columbia University Printing.

Further reading [edit]

  • Kousser, T. (2004). Term Limits and the Dismantling of State Legislative Professionalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • O'Keefe, Eric (2008). "Term Limits". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Establish. pp. 504–06. doi:ten.4135/9781412965811.n308. ISBN978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
  • Peabody, Bruce G. (2001). "George Washington, presidential term limits, and the trouble of reluctant political leadership". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 31 (3): 439–453. doi:10.1111/j.0360-4918.2001.00180.10.
  • Sigel, Roberta S.; Butler, David J. (1964). "The Public and the No Third Term Tradition: Inquiry into Attitudes Toward Power". Midwest Journal of Political Science. eight (1): 39–54. doi:10.2307/2108652. JSTOR 2108652.
  • Stathis, Stephen Due west. (1990). "The Xx-Second Amendment: A practical remedy or partisan maneuver". Constitutional Commentary. 7: 61.

External links [edit]

  • National Conference of State Legislatures term limits summary
  • Word on Term Limits

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_limits_in_the_United_States

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